India: Ashoka's path to glory

For over six and a half centuries after Ashoka's reign, the Mauryan Empire stood as the unshakable pillar of the Indian subcontinent. From 350 CE to 1000 CE, it faced relentless invasions from Central Asian nomads, Middle Eastern conquerors, and Tibetan warlords. Some sought destruction, others sought wealth, and a few sought to spread their influence. However, through every battle and every war, the Mauryan Empire endured, adapting, evolving, and ultimately emerging victorious in all conflicts.

The Invasions Begin (350 CE – 500 CE): The Huns' Wrath and Their Defeat

By the mid-4th century CE, the Mauryan Empire had already engaged in multiple wars with the remnants of the Kushan Empire. However, a new and far more dangerous threat loomed—the Hephthalite Huns (White Huns). Emerging from Central Asia, these warlike nomads launched a devastating campaign across Persia and Central Asia before setting their sights on the rich lands of India.

In the late 5th century CE, under the leadership of their ruler Toramana, the Huns launched a full-scale invasion into the Mauryan northwestern provinces, crossing the Hindu Kush. The Huns were known for their ferocity, swift cavalry, and brutal warfare tactics. They sacked multiple frontier cities, but unlike their conquests in Persia, they met fierce resistance from the Mauryan legions.

The Mauryan Emperor at the time, Vikramaditya Maurya, responded with overwhelming force. The Mauryan war elephants, heavy cavalry, and well-disciplined infantry clashed with the Hun forces in multiple battles. The decisive engagement came at the Battle of Gandhara (510 CE), where the Mauryan forces utterly crushed the Huns. Toramana was slain, and his son Mihirakula, known for his extreme cruelty, attempted to regroup. However, the Mauryan generals systematically hunted down and eradicated the remaining Hun forces.

The Mauryan victory over the Huns was not just a military triumph but also a civilizational one. Unlike Persia and the Roman Empire, which suffered greatly under Hun invasions, the Mauryan Empire repelled them completely, preventing them from establishing any lasting rule in the subcontinent.

The Rise of the Islamic Caliphates (600 CE – 800 CE): The Umayyads and Abbasids

With the rise of Islam in the 7th century, the Middle East saw the rapid expansion of the Umayyad Caliphate. By 711 CE, the Umayyads had conquered Sindh under the leadership of Muhammad bin Qasim, who led an army into the westernmost parts of the Mauryan Empire. However, unlike the Arab conquests of Persia and Central Asia, the Mauryan Empire was prepared.

The Mauryan governor of Sindh, Jayasimha Maurya, mobilized his forces and engaged the Umayyads in multiple battles. The decisive engagement occurred at the Battle of the Indus (713 CE), where the Mauryan war elephants and heavily armored cavalry shattered the Arab formations. Muhammad bin Qasim was forced to retreat, and the Umayyads never managed to push further into the Mauryan heartland.

A century later, under the Abbasid Caliphate, diplomatic relations between the two empires improved. Trade between India and the Islamic world flourished, leading to the exchange of knowledge, technology, and culture. While military invasions were thwarted, the Mauryan Empire welcomed scholars and merchants from the Middle East, leading to advancements in science, mathematics, and astronomy.

Tibetan Incursions (800 CE – 900 CE)

During the 8th and 9th centuries, the Tibetan Empire, under rulers like Trisong Detsen, expanded aggressively into northern India. The Tibetan forces attempted to claim the Himalayan regions and encroach into the Gangetic plains. However, the Mauryan frontier garrisons, stationed in Nepal and Bhutan, resisted fiercely.

After decades of border skirmishes, a final war broke out in the mid-9th century. The Mauryan Emperor at the time, Bhaskaravarman Maurya, launched a counteroffensive, pushing Tibetan forces back into the Himalayas. A peace treaty was signed, establishing the Himalayas as the natural boundary between the two empires.

The Ghaznavid Invasion (998 CE – 1000 CE): The First Turkic Muslim Incursion

By the late 10th century, a new power emerged in the Middle East—the Ghaznavid Empire, led by Mahmud of Ghazni. Unlike the Umayyads and Abbasids, Mahmud was not just interested in trade or religious expansion—he sought wealth and conquest.

In 998 CE, Mahmud launched a massive invasion into northern India, targeting the wealthy cities of Punjab. His army, composed of highly skilled Turkic cavalry, was fast and brutal, sacking several smaller towns and temples. However, the Mauryan Emperor Chandraprakash Maurya was prepared.

In 1000 CE, the Battle of Peshawar marked a defining moment in history. The Mauryan war elephants, combined with elite archers and heavily armored cavalry, engaged Mahmud's forces in a decisive battle. Unlike previous invaders, Mahmud faced a united and technologically advanced Indian army. After a brutal conflict, the Ghaznavid forces were annihilated, forcing Mahmud to flee back to Ghazni.

This victory ensured that Islamic conquests in India were halted for centuries, preventing the early establishment of a Delhi Sultanate. While Mahmud of Ghazni continued his raids in other regions, he never again attempted a full-scale invasion of the Mauryan heartland.

The Mauryan Empire's Legacy (1000 CE and Beyond)

By the turn of the millennium, the Mauryan Empire had proven itself to be the strongest and most enduring empire in world history. It had repelled every major invasion, from the Huns and Tibetans to the Islamic Caliphates and the Ghaznavids. While Persia, Rome, and China had suffered conquests and collapses, the Mauryan Empire stood unbroken, its borders still stretching from Afghanistan to the Bay of Bengal.

The Mauryan military innovations, including advanced metallurgy, siege warfare, and elephant-based tactics, had made it an unconquerable fortress. Meanwhile, its cultural and trade exchanges with the Middle East and China had led to a golden age of science, literature, and architecture.

Despite centuries of war, the empire remained prosperous, its people flourishing under a strong central administration. Ashoka's vision of a united and indomitable Bharatvarsha had become reality, and the Mauryan legacy continued into the next millennium.

Conclusion

Between 350 CE and 1000 CE, the Mauryan Empire faced and defeated every major invading force, from the Huns and Arabs to the Tibetans and Ghaznavids. While other civilizations fell to conquest, the Mauryan Empire stood firm, ensuring that India remained unconquered. The empire's military strength, strategic fortifications, and technological advancements secured its dominance over the subcontinent and beyond.

As the year 1000 CE dawned, the world recognized the Mauryan Empire as an unshakable titan, an empire that had not only survived the test of time but had forged an unbreakable legacy of strength, unity, and resilience.